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Not sure exactly what my thesis will be, but something about the evolution of the myth; how it began, how it evolved, and how people used it over time. It initially survived because of geographical ambiguity, and was rediscovered by Horsford. He introduced Vikings into the myth, most likely as an expression of anti-catholic/anti-irish sentiment to take the credit of discovering america away from Columbus. Horsfod was also an interesting guy, a lot to write about him. Unclear why exactly he was so keen on building monuments to Ericsson, and why he was so convinced he landed in Massachusetts -- still the in the process of reading his books on the subject.
Paragraph 1: The First Mentions of the Myth, and some of its Founding Properties
The myth of Norumbega can trace its beginnings back to the Age of Exploration. The first description of Norumbega as a city was in 1548, on a map by Giacomo Gastaldi.[@KirsNor98, 34] How it found its way there is
As with many myths and legengs, "just about everything concerning Norumbega is in dispute."[@KirsNor98, 35]
Tracing the etymology of the name "Norumbega" reveals much about the Age of Exploration.
The first person to explore the area associated with Norumbega was Giovanni da Verrazzano in 1524.[@KirsNor98, 36] Recounting his journey in a letter, he described a pleasant harbor inhabited by friendly and civil natives.[@KirsNor98, 39]. They were "very like the manner of the ancients" and practiced "more systematic cultivation [of crops] than the other tribes."[@KirsNor98, 39] "More civilized" natives seems to have been from the beginning a core aspect of the myth of Norumbega. Verrazzano named this place Refugio, "on account of its beauty."[@KirsNor98, 39]
They are "now believed to have been [in] the area around Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island,"[@KirsNor98, 39] far distant from where Norumbega would eventually be described. However, due to geographical ambiguity at the time, Verrazzano's Refugio nevertheless became "at the heart of the Norumbega legend."[@KirsNor98, 39] Five years later, Giovanni's brother Girolamo marked a "small inlet labelled oranbega."[@KirsNor98, 35] Around fifteen years after that, Jean Alafonce, sailing up a river we know now to have been the Penobscot, described a city called Norombegue.[@KirsNor98, 40-41] Just as with Varrazzano's Refugio, Alafonce described "clever inhabitants [...] The people used many words which sound like Latin and worship the sun, and they are fair people and tall."[@KirsNor98, 41] Over time, these similar stories of civilized natives and a river combined to form the basis for the myth of Norumbega.[@KirsNor98, 41]
Later Developments of the Myth in the Age of Exploration
Another factor that may have contributed to the idea Norumbega as a city was the philosophy of natural harmony. "Many Renaissance cosmographers subscribed to the philosophy [which stated] the physical world was governed by laws ensuring perfect equilibrium."[@KirsNor98, 35] "Accordingly, when Europeans heard about the New World, they anticipated that it would contain at least an embryonic counterpart of features of the geography and human behavior of the Old World."[@KirsNor98, 35] This may have contributed to the city's association with more civilized inhabitants.
How the Myth Found new Popularity in the Late 19th Century
The myth of Norumbega saw a brief resurgence in late 19th century Boston. Eben Norton Horsford was a chemist working in Boston, best known for his work in baking powder.[@HorsBread61] Throughout his life, however, he showed some interest in history and archaeology. He would collect fossils around his father's farm in Moscow (now Leister) New York where he grew up,[@JackHors92, 340] and expressed interest in learning the language of the Seneca Indians[@JackHors92, 340], to which his father worked as a missionary.[@JackHors92, 103] Later in his life, he would often visit his wife's family's estate on Shelter Island, New York.[@AdamsMemBiog08, 104] There, he became interested in the island's history and "erected a monument to the Quakers, who found shelter there from Puritan persecution."[@AdamsMemBiog08, 104] He would later repeat this pattern of interest and monument construction in Massachusetts.
It'd be nice to include a bit about how Horsford came about the myth here. Also whether it was Norumbega or the Viking sagas he learned about first. -- After more research, seems like he was interested in Vikings first and only later made the connection to Norumbega.
Horsford did not take up the myth unchanged, however. He became convinced the city of Norumbega was the remains of a Norse settlement.
In 1887,[@HorsDisc87, 10] Horsford unveiled a large bronze statue of the viking Leif Ericsson,[@GuttVal18, 86] who was known at the time as the first European to have set foot in America. However what was unknown, and would remain so until the late 20th century, was where exactly Leif had landed. Horsford was convinced, however, that Leif had landed in Massachusetts. In his dedication of the statue, he explained his reasoning:
...if you will be kind enough to hold up to your mind's eye, now for a moment, any familiar map of North America. Look at the east coast. From Greenland, along the line to the southwest, you will notice three projections into the sea. They are Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and Cape Cod.[@HorsDisc87, 9]
He disregards Newfoundland as an option, saying "[it] is bold, rocky, mountainous, of meagre vegetation, and with few beaches."[@HorsDisc87, 10] Ironically, the best evidence archaeologists have now for the location of Vinland is L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland.
Include part by that historian who wrote about how wrong he was[@HorsProb89, 1]
Summary of Horsford's defense, letter to judge Daly source[@HorsProb89]
Write about Horsford's "archaeology," what he says he found, his methods
Write about the dedication of the Norumbega Tower
Write about how Horsford connected his interest in Vikings and Leif Ericsson to the myth of Norumbega -- his interest in Native American language and how that let him make the connection.
Horsford read about how Alafonce described the natives of Norumbega speaking something closer to Latin; he interpreted that as being influenced by Norse.
The city of Norumbega was the last vestige of viking occupation
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