Well I finished a while ago but never made commit.

Started working on messy draft.

Bibliography.md

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+# Bibliography
+
+[@AdamsMemBiog08] [@FlemPicHist95][@GreeneLife37] all[@] these[@] references![@KirsNor98]
+
+\pagebreak
+
+# References

Comments.md

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+I think what's best here is you know where to go next -- I do think though there's a lot x to do still in deciding whether this is a funny story of obsession or part of a larger anti-Itallian pro-Nordic sway... I hope you feel well 
+
+Is the story of the descovery of america challenged in other places, and how? (search google books for leif too?)
+
+

Draft.md

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+---
+header-includes:
+    - \usepackage{setspace}
+    - \doublespacing
+---
+
+Not sure exactly what my thesis will be, but something about the evolution of
+the myth; how it began, how it evolved, and how people used it over time. It
+initially survived because of geographical ambiguity, and was rediscovered by
+Horsford. He introduced Vikings into the myth, most likely as an expression of
+anti-catholic/anti-irish sentiment to take the credit of discovering america
+away from Columbus. Horsfod was also an interesting guy, a lot to write about
+him. Unclear why exactly he was so keen on building monuments to Ericsson, and
+why he was so convinced he landed in Massachusetts -- still the in the process
+of reading his books on the subject.
+
+# Paragraph 1: The First Mentions of the Myth, and some of its Founding Properties
+
+The myth of Norumbega can trace its beginnings back to the Age of Exploration.
+The first description of Norumbega as a city was in 1548, on a map by Giacomo
+Gastaldi.[@KirsNor98, 34] How it found its way there is
+
+As with many myths and legengs, "just about everything concerning Norumbega is
+in dispute."[@KirsNor98, 35]
+
+Tracing the etymology of the name "Norumbega" reveals much about the Age of
+Exploration.
+
+The first person to explore the area associated with Norumbega was Giovanni da
+Verrazzano in 1524.[@KirsNor98, 36] Recounting his journey in a letter, he
+described a pleasant harbor inhabited by friendly and civil
+natives.[@KirsNor98, 39]. They were "very like the manner of the ancients" and
+practiced "more systematic cultivation [of crops] than the other
+tribes."[@KirsNor98, 39] "More civilized" natives seems to have been from the
+beginning a core aspect of the myth of Norumbega. Verrazzano named this place
+*Refugio*, "on account of its beauty."[@KirsNor98, 39]
+
+They are "now believed to have been [in] the area around Narragansett Bay,
+Rhode Island,"[@KirsNor98, 39] far distant from where Norumbega would
+eventually be described. However, due to geographical ambiguity at the time,
+Verrazzano's *Refugio* nevertheless became "at the heart of the Norumbega
+legend."[@KirsNor98, 39] Five years later, Giovanni's brother Girolamo marked a
+"small inlet labelled *oranbega.*"[@KirsNor98, 35] Around fifteen years after
+that, Jean Alafonce, sailing up a river we know now to have been the Penobscot,
+described a city called *Norombegue*.[@KirsNor98, 40-41] Just as with
+Varrazzano's *Refugio*, Alafonce described "clever inhabitants [...] The people
+used many words which sound like Latin and worship the sun, and they are fair
+people and tall."[@KirsNor98, 41] Over time, these similar stories of civilized
+natives and a river combined to form the basis for the myth of
+Norumbega.[@KirsNor98, 41]
+
+# Later Developments of the Myth in the Age of Exploration
+
+Another factor that may have contributed to the idea Norumbega as a city was
+the philosophy of natural harmony. "Many Renaissance cosmographers subscribed
+to the philosophy [which stated] the physical world was governed by laws
+ensuring perfect equilibrium."[@KirsNor98, 35] "Accordingly, when Europeans
+heard about the New World, they anticipated that it would contain at least an
+embryonic counterpart of features of the geography and human behavior of the
+Old World."[@KirsNor98, 35] This may have contributed to the city's association
+with more civilized inhabitants.
+
+# How the Myth Found new Popularity in the Late 19th Century
+
+The myth of Norumbega saw a brief resurgence in late 19th century Boston. Eben
+Norton Horsford was a chemist working in Boston, best known for his work in
+baking powder.[@HorsBread61] Throughout his life, however, he showed some
+interest in history and archaeology. He would collect fossils around his
+father's farm in Moscow (now Leister) New York where he grew up,[@JackHors92,
+340] and expressed interest in learning the language of the Seneca
+Indians[@JackHors92, 340], to which his father worked as a
+missionary.[@JackHors92, 103] Later in his life, he would often visit his
+wife's family's estate on Shelter Island, New York.[@AdamsMemBiog08, 104]
+There, he became interested in the island's history and "erected a monument to
+the Quakers, who found shelter there from Puritan
+persecution."[@AdamsMemBiog08, 104] He would later repeat this pattern of
+interest and monument construction in Massachusetts.
+
+It'd be nice to include a bit about how Horsford came about the myth here. Also
+whether it was Norumbega or the Viking sagas he learned about first. -- After
+more research, seems like he was interested in Vikings first and only later
+made the connection to Norumbega.
+
+Horsford did not take up the myth unchanged, however. He became convinced the
+city of Norumbega was the remains of a Norse settlement.
+
+In 1887,[@HorsDisc87, 10] Horsford unveiled a large bronze statue of the viking
+Leif Ericsson,[@GuttVal18, 86] who was known at the time as the first European
+to have set foot in America. However what was unknown, and would remain so
+until the late 20th century, was where exactly Leif had landed. Horsford was
+convinced, however, that Leif had landed in Massachusetts. In his dedication of
+the statue, he explained his reasoning:
+
+> ...if you will be kind enough to hold up to your mind's eye, now for a
+> moment, any familiar map of North America. Look at the east coast. From
+> Greenland, along the line to the southwest, you will notice three projections
+> into the sea. They are Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and Cape Cod.[@HorsDisc87,
+> 9]
+
+He disregards Newfoundland as an option, saying "[it] is bold, rocky,
+mountainous, of meagre vegetation, and with few beaches."[@HorsDisc87, 10]
+Ironically, the best evidence archaeologists have now for the location of
+Vinland is L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland. 
+
+Include part by that historian who wrote about how wrong he was[@HorsProb89, 1]
+
+Summary of Horsford's defense, letter to judge Daly source[@HorsProb89]
+
+Write about Horsford's "archaeology," what he says he found, his methods
+
+Write about the dedication of the Norumbega Tower
+
+Write about how Horsford connected his interest in Vikings and Leif Ericsson to
+the myth of Norumbega -- his interest in Native American language and how that
+let him make the connection.
+
+Horsford read about how Alafonce described the natives of Norumbega speaking
+something closer to Latin; he interpreted that as being influenced by Norse.
+
+The city of Norumbega was the last vestige of viking occupation
+
+\pagebreak
+# References

Horsford.md

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+# Eben Norton Horsford
+
+## Early Life
+
+- Was born in Moscow, NY, July 27, 1818 [@AdamsMemBiog08, 103]
+- Died in Cambridge, MA, January 1, 1893 [@AdamsMemBiog08, 103]
+- Grandfather on his mother's side fought in the Revolutionary War
+  [@AdamsMemBiog08, p.103]
+- His father had moved to Moscow NY as a missionary to the Seneca Indians
+  [@AdamsMemBiog08, p.103]
+  - A large part of his Norumbega thesis was how Norse words could be found in
+    American Indian place names; perhaps this experience with natives gave him
+    inspiration or confidence.
+- "[Horsford] grew up with strong scholarly tastes, and was known to his
+  playmates as a marvel of general information. It is interesting to note that
+  a favorite amusement was collecting the fossils which abounded on his
+  father's farm, as this recreation of his boyhood undoubtedly turned his
+  thoughts toward the natural sciences, to which so large a part of his manhood
+  was devoted, while at the same time his early association with the Seneca
+  Indians, who flocked ot his father's house in large numbers, familiarized him
+  with Indian words and pronunciation, and this paved the way for the
+  philological and archaeological studies of his older years."[@JackHors92,
+  p.340]
+  - As above, a shadow of his later interests can be seen already in the
+    hobbies of his early years.
+- "He was sent to the best schools, and at the age of nineteen graduated as a
+  civil engineer from the Renseelaer Institute of Trow, New
+  York"[@AdamsMemBiog08, p.104]
+  - Had good education, somewhat wealthy parents.
+
+## Employment
+
+- "He was then employed on the Geological Survey of the State of New
+  York"[@AdamsMemBiog08, p.104]
+  - Had some experience with geographic survey, possibly what gave him
+    confidence in his archaeological pursuits.
+- "In 1844 he went to Germany to study chemistry, and spent two years at
+  Giessen under Baron Liebig"[@AdamsMemBiog08, p.104]
+- "He usually spent his summers at Shelter Island, New York, in the old manor
+  house, which had belonged to his wife's family. He interested himself in
+  studying the antiquity of the island, and erected a monument to the Quakers,
+  who found shelter there from Puritan persecution."[@AdamsMemBiog08, p.104]
+    - Another instance of Horsford being interested in history, erecting
+      monuments. Seems like a hobby of his.
+    - Also has religious elements, just as the Norumbega myth & Protestantism
+      vs. Catholicism.
+
+## Baking Powder
+
+- 
+
+## Later Life and Interest in Norumbega
+
+- "In the comparative leisure of his later years he became deeply interested in
+  endeavoring to trace the routes of the Northmen, who early visited this
+  continent."[@AdamsMemBiog08, p.104]
+  - Had a lot of free time, was used to doing research as his job and as his
+    hobby.
+  - Seems he was genuinely interested, wasn't being paid or anything.
+- "He studied the sagas, pored over the ancient charts, explored the coast of
+  New England, and at length became assured that he found, in Cambridge, the
+  location of the house built by Leif Ericson, and that at Watertown, on the
+  Charles River, he had discovered the long-lost Norumbega, the settlement of
+  the Icelandic voyagers. Here he erected a substantial stone tower to mark the
+  spot."[@AdamsMemBiog08, p.104-5]
+    - Seems he did extensive research, and thought he was being objective,
+      though probably biased as he lived in Cambridge.
+    - The biographer takes a pretty neutral tone as to the veracity of Eben's
+      claim here; seems nobody believed/nobody cared about his ideas after he
+      died.
+    - Again, just as in the Quaker thing above, he likes erecting monuments.
+- "In 1891 the Scandinavian societies of North America, in testimony of their
+  appreciation of his efforts to demonstrate the discovery and colonization of
+  America by the Northmen, presented him, in their annual assembly, an
+  engrossed address, framed in wood from Norway, and elaborately carved by a
+  Norwegian lady. In 1892 the king of Denmark created him a Knight Commander of
+  the third grade of the Order of Danneborg."[@AdamsMemBiog08, p.105]
+  - Seems his ideas were well-received by former Vikings.
+
+  "in the mid 16th century the name Norumbega reffered to the Penobscot Bay
+  area and, by extension, to what is now Maine and southern New Brunswick" b/c of GIROlamo Verrazzano (map guy) refugio -> oranbega
+  [@KirsNor98, 35]
+
+## Other Doings
+
+- "Wellesley College was the object of his largest benefactions (...) He
+  enlarged and endowed the college library, and provided a fund for scientific
+  apparatus."[@AdamsMemBiog08, p.105]
+  - Seems he made good of his wealth from baking soda.
+
+\pagebreak
+
+# References

HorsfordNorumbega.md

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+# The Myth of Norumbega
+
+
+\pagebreak
+# References

Makefile

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 BIB = bibliography.bib
-STYLE = chicago-annote.csl
+STYLE = chicago.csl
 
 %: %.md
 	pandoc $^ -o $@.pdf --bibliography=$(BIB) --csl=$(STYLE) --pdf-engine=xelatex --citeproc
+
+clean:
+	rm *.pdf
+
+.PHONY: clean

Norumbega.md

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+# The Myth of Norumbega
+
+- The first person to put "Norumbega" on a map was Giacomo
+  Gastaldi.[@KirsNor98, 34]
+  - "Once Giacomo Gastaldi had placed a fully fledged country of *Nurumberg* on
+    his map *Tierra Nueva*, in an edition of Ptolemy's Geography published in
+    Venice in 1548, geographical ignorance allowed the non-existent land to
+    flourish on innumerable other maps and globes. Thus until well into the
+    second half of the seventeenth century, the mythical country of Norumbega
+    continued to appear on maps."[@KirsNor98, 34]
+- "Just about everything concerning Norumbega is in dispute. The two generally
+  agreed facts are: that in the mid-sixteenth century the name Norumbega
+  referred to the Penobscot Bay area and, by extension, to what is now Maine
+  and southern New Brunswick (an area of roughly between 44 and 46 degrees
+  north); and that the name itself was spawned by a small inlet labeled
+  *oranbega* on the maps drawn by Girolamo de Verrazzano in 1529 to illustrate
+  his brother's account of a voyage made five years previously."[@KirsNor98,
+  35]
+  - As with most myths, the facts such as they are vary widely between sources.
+  - The name "Norumbega" has a complicated history, unclear what its origin
+    was. Horsford claimed it was a native word that was a corruption of a
+    viking one.
+- "Two other statements are also uncontentious: that in the sixteenth century
+  the region of Norumbega was attracting English would-be colonists, and that
+  once sufficient firsthand knowledge reached Europe from early attempts at
+  settlement and from further exploration, both the cartographical Norumbega
+  and the tales associated with it entirely disappeared."[@KirsNor98, 35]
+  - Except by Horsford and others in the later 18th.
+- "Many Renaissance cosmographers subscribed to the philosophy of natural
+  harmony. It rested on the idea that the physical world was governed by laws
+  ensuring perfect equilibrium."[@KirsNor98, 35]
+  - Cartography wasn't really a science, had philosophical aspects as well.
+- "Accordingly, when Europeans heard about the New World, they anticipated that
+  it would contain at least an embryonic counterpart of features of the
+  geography and human behaviour of the Old World."[@KirsNor98, 35]
+  - **Europeans went to the New World looking for the Old**, for what they had
+    known and what was familiar.
+
+
+\pagebreak
+# References

Notes.md

@@ -1,15 +0,0 @@
-# Research Question
-
-**To whom and why was the myth of Norumbega attractive?**
-
-# Eben Norton Horsford
-
-- Was born in Moscow, NY, July 27, 1818 [@AdamsMemBiog08, p.103]
-- Died in Cambridge, MA, January 1, 1893 [@AdamsMemBiog08, p.103]
-- His grandfather on his mother's side fought in the Revolutionary War [@AdamsMemBiog08, p.103]
-- His father had moved to Moscow NY as a missionary to the Seneca Indians [@AdamsMemBiog08, p.103]
-- "He was sent to the best schools" : [@AdamsMemBiog08, p.104] *(which?)*
-
-\pagebreak
-
-# References

Paper.md

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+---
+header-includes:
+    - \usepackage{setspace}
+    - \AtBeginEnvironment{quote}{\singlespacing}
+    - \doublespacing
+title: |
+ \huge Eben Norton Horsford
+ \huge and the Legend of Norumbega
+author: Jacob Signorovitch
+---
+
+\maketitle
+
+In Weston, Massachusetts, across the Charles River from Brandeis University, an
+unusual structure rises among the trees; a forty foot stone tower, complete
+with spiral staircase and ramparts, weathered and stained with time, looking
+distinctly out of place within earshot of I-95. The story of how it came to be
+there involves Vikings, a baking soda magnate, the discovery of America, and,
+at the center of it all, the Legend of Norumbega. As one explores the
+surrounding area, the name appears again and again: a map will tell you the
+structure's name is Norumbega Tower, and running alongside is Norumbega Road.
+Further south, one finds a Norumbega Park, and another road called Norumbega
+Court. This paper will explore how one man in the late nineteenth century, Eben
+Norton Horsford, combined Norse sagas and a New England *El Dorado* into a
+theory for the original discovery of America, what motivated him to do so, and
+the legacy he left behind.
+
+The Legend of Norumbega originated in the sixteenth century, during the Age of
+Exploration. To European explorers, it was variously a town, city, or country,
+somewhere along the coast of New England, inhabited by amiable and civilized
+natives. First given the name *Nurumberg* by Giacomo Gastaldi in a 1548 edition
+of Ptolemy's Geography,[@KirsNor98, 34] the myth can be traced back to a
+conflation of two separate accounts. The first is that of Giovanni da
+Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer under King Francis I of
+France. He was one of the first Europeans to explore the
+area around Narragansett Bay in 1524[@KirsNor98, 36, 39], and recounted his
+experiences in a letter to the king. He described a pleasant harbor inhabited
+by friendly and civil natives.[@KirsNor98, 39] They practiced "more systematic
+cultivation [of crops] than the other tribes," and were "very like the manner
+of the ancients [i.e., western antiquity]."[@KirsNor98, 39] In the letter,
+Verrazzano names the place *refugio*, "on account of its beauty."[@KirsNor98,
+39] Despite Narragansett Bay being quite far from where Norumbega would
+eventually be described, geographical ambiguity would allow his account to become
+"at the heart of the Norumbega legend."[@KirsNor98, 39] Specifically, the
+mention of a "more civilized" tribe of natives would continue to be a core aspect of
+the legend in all future renditions. The second account, which lends the
+myth its name and location, is that of Jean Alfonce de Saintonge, a pilot on
+Jacques Cartier's exploration of the Penobscot Bay area.[@KirsNor98, 41]
+Sailing up the Penobscot River, which he called the *Norenbègue*, he described
+"a city called *Norombegue* with clever inhabitants [...] The people use many
+words which sound like Latin and worship the sun, and they are fair people and
+tall."[@KirsNor98, 41] These two accounts, Varrazzano's *refugio* and
+Saintonge's *Norombegue*, eventually merged into a single myth, canonized by
+the cartographer Gastaldi, of an advanced Native American city which shared more in common with 
+Europe than its neighbors.[@KirsNor98, 41]
+
+Over the centuries that followed, more accurate maps and exploration revealed Norumbega
+not as the advanced society it was believed to be but only "a settlement on the
+outer Penobscot shore."[@KirsNor98, 55] Still, the myth lay dormant, disproven
+yet still alluring. Enter Eben Norton Horsford, a mid-nineteenth century
+chemist working in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Best known for his invention of
+modern baking powder,[@JackHors92, 343] Horsford had long harbored an interest
+in history and archaeology. He collected fossils around his father's farm in
+Moscow (now Leister), New York where he grew up,[@JackHors92, 340] and became
+interested in learning the language of the Seneca Indians[@JackHors92, 340] to
+which his father worked as a missionary.[@JackHors92, 103] Later, he would
+often visit his wife's family estate on Shelter Island, New
+York,[@AdamsMemBiog08, 104] where he became interested in the island's history.
+He even "erected a monument to the Quakers, who found shelter there from
+Puritan persecution."[@AdamsMemBiog08, 104] This pattern of research and
+monument building would be repeated several times throughout Horsford's life,
+culminating in Norumbega Tower. Horsford's most famous accomplishment, and how
+he was able to fund these projects, would come in 1856 with his invention of a
+revolutionary new baking powder recipe without a fermentation
+step.[@JackHors92, 343] He founded the Rumford Chemical Works, named after a
+position he held at Harvard, which would make him a fortune.[@JackHors92, 343] While in Cambridge, Horsford became fascinated by
+the possibility of Vikings in New England. This idea had some
+precedent;[@FlemPicHist95, 1079] in 1841, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow wrote *The
+Skeleton in Armour*, a poem interpreting a body discovered in
+Fall River, Massachusetts[^2] to be that of a Norse warrior.[@LongBall41, 29-41] But it was with Horsford the
+idea came to be most associated.[@FlemPicHist95, 1080] In 1887,[@HorsDisc87,
+10] Horsford wrote the dedication for a large bronze statue of
+the Viking Explorer Leif Erickson,[@GuttVal18, 86] commending him for his early discovery of America. On
+this point, modern scholars agree; archaeological evidence at L'Anse aux
+Meadows in Newfoundland constitutes a "pre-1492 presence of Europeans in the
+Americas."[@LedgeHorz19, 2] According to Icelandic sagas, it was here Erickson
+built the settlement of *Vinland*. Horsford, however, believed Erickson to have
+sailed far further south after making the continent, all the way down to Cape
+Cod. He defended his reasoning by referring to the sagas:
+
+> I might dwell at some length, if time would permit, upon other interesting
+> features of the relations of the Sagas:
+> 1. For example, one of very great significance is that of the extraordinary
+>    height of the tide at high water [...] In the bottom of Massachusetts Bay,
+>    as you know, the tides rise from ten to twelve feet, while south of Cape
+>    Cod peninsula they rise but from three to five feet.
+> [...]
+> 5. Of the grapes which the German Tyrker, who was of Leifs crew, discovered,
+>    and of which, as a native of a wine country, weary of his ship's rations,
+>    he doubtless over-ate, there were then, as now, a plenty on the shores of
+>    Massachusetts Bay and along the St. Lawrence. Jacques Cartier speaks of
+>    them as early as 1535.
+
+Here, Horsford also mentions that he has read the accounts of Cartier; this may
+have helped him later make the connection between Vikings and Norumbega. But
+for now, he was only interested in Erickson. When he published the dedication,
+titled *The Discovery of America by Northmen*, his theories drew the ire of
+contemporary historians. Presumably, many were upset a professor of Chemistry
+thought himself more knowledgeable in their field than they were. One
+author, Justin Winsor, found issue with Horsford's theory that Vikings had left
+a noticeable imprint on Native American language:
+
+> Nothing could be slenderer than the alleged correspondences of languages, and
+> we can see in Horsford's *Discovery of America by Northmen* to what a
+> fanciful extent a confident enthusiasm can carry it.[@WinsNar89, 98-99]
+
+Horsford begins his next book on the Vikings, *The Problem of the Northmen*, by
+directly addressing Winsor's comment,[@HorsProb89, 1] demonstrating that he was
+willing to openly spar with historians to defend his theory. Horsford's belief
+and confidence that there were Nordic elements present in Native American
+language may have been informed by his early years with the Seneca in New York.
+Horsford then continues to present evidence for the location of Leif Erickson's
+houses: "If anyone interested will walk from the junction of Elmwood Avenue
+with Mt. Auburn Street [...] he will be at the site of the objects of interest
+which had once been there, and which I had predicted might there be
+found."[@HorsProb89, 14] Here Horsford was remarkably confident in his claims,
+inviting his audience to see the evidence for themselves. He claims there are
+"inequalities of the surface," which are "the remains of two long log houses,
+and huts, or cots."[@HorsProb89, 14] He states they are arranged "'some nearer,
+some farther from the water,' as the sagas say,"[@HorsProb89, 14] again drawing
+on the sagas as his primary source. Outside of just Horsford, there existed a
+wider movement around the promotion of Leif Erickson in the late nineteenth
+century. Newspapers at the time rarely mention Erickson without mentioning his
+preceding Columbus,[^1] which may have been part of a widespread anti-Italian
+and anti-Catholic sentiment. Several other proponents of Vikings in New England
+also believed "the 'Aryan race,' in particular its 'Teutonic' [i.e., German]
+branch, was superior to all others."[@FlemPicHist95, 1078] Horsford, however,
+seems to have only been interested in Erickson and never brings up racial
+superiority or a disdain for Columbus. In fact, he states that Erickson's prior
+discovery of America "would dim, by the measure of the faintest Indian-summer
+haze only, the transcendent glory of the life-work of Columbus."[@HorsDisc90,
+16] So, while some of the enthusiasm around Horsford's work may have been
+motivated by a desire to diminish Columbus as an expression of pro-Nordic
+anti-Italian sentiment, it seems the man himself was driven by his own
+curiosity in what he saw as little-researched historical possibility.
+
+It was during one of his visits to Shelter island when "a chance reference let
+fall by one of his guests" would introduce Horsford to the legend of
+Norumbega.[@JackHors92, 344] The term seems to have been widely known in New
+England at the time; both an article from the Worcester Daily Spy in 1875 and
+one from the Vermont Phoenix in 1894 mention Norumbega in passing, the reader
+assumed to be familiar. Horsford, having grown up in New York, was only
+introduced to the myth after his retirement and became energetically intrigued.
+He read the accounts of Alafonce and Verrazzano, and describes them in one of
+his books.[@HorsDisc90, 14] In this same book, *Discovery of the Ancient City
+of Norumbega*, Horsford mentions the existence of so many maps that prominently
+display Norumbega that "one could not help thinking that they must have some
+foundation in truth; the alternative [would have] involved too many
+conspirators, of different nationalities."[@HorsDisc90, 13] How Horsford made
+the connection from Norumbega to Leif Erickson is a little less clear, though
+it was most likely etymological. We have seen already Horsford's early interest
+in Native American language from his early years with the Seneca in New York,
+and it seems he thought the name "Norumbega" peculiar. He describes how "many
+hundreds of years ago the country we call Norway was called Norbegia or
+Norbega,"[@HorsDisc90, 19] and that in "the Algonquin family of languages,
+which prevailed throughout New England, could not [...] utter the sound of *b*
+without prefixing to it the sound of *m*."[@HorsDisc90, 18] Thus, he reasons,
+*Norumbega* is but a Native American corruption of what the Vikings would have
+called Norway. Horsford uses physical evidence to support his claim as well. He
+mentions several instances where the first settlers of Massachusetts found
+natural dams or weirs, which could be used for fishing (the fish would be
+stopped and collect before the weir on their way upstream to
+spawn).[@HorsDisc90, 33-34] He also describes walls and other structures on the
+floor of Boston Harbor and Back Bay, evidence of "the ancient seaport of
+Norumbega."[@HorsDisc90, 37] To Horsford, all this evidence proved the
+existence of a great Viking fort of Norumbega, and necessitated the
+construction of a monument. We have seen this pattern before; once to the
+Quakers who found refuge on Shelter Island, and again in Boston to Leif
+Erickson for discovering America. To justify the monument, he gave four
+reasons:
+
+> 1. It will commemorate the Discovery of Vinland and Norumbega in the
+>    forty-third degree, and the identification of Norumbega with Norway, the
+>    come country to which this region was once subject by right of discovery
+>    and colonization.
+> 2. It will invite criticism, and so sift out any errors of interpretation
+>    into which, sharing the usual fortune of the pioneer, I may have been led.
+> 3. It will encourage archæological investigation in a fascinating and almost
+>    untrodden field, and be certain to contribute in the results of research
+>    and exploration, both in the study and the field, to the historical
+>    treasure of the Commonwealth.
+> 4. It will help, by reason of its mere presence, and by virtue of the
+>    veneration with which the Tower will in time come to be regarded, to bring
+>    acquiescence in the fruit of investigation, and so allay the blind
+>    scepticism, amounting practically to inverted ambition, that would deprive
+>    Massachusetts of the glory of holding the Landfall of Leif Erickson, and
+>    at the same time the seat of the earliest colony of Europeans in
+>    America.[@HorsDisc90, 40]
+
+These convictions say much about the man Horsford was. As already seen from his
+comments on Columbus, he was not motivated by dislike of the Italians; rather,
+he sought to bring "the glory" of Erickson's discovery to Massachusetts, his home
+for the majority of his working life. Second, he is remarkably humble in his
+theories; this is particularly evident in his second point, and to an extent
+the third. He accepts that "the trustworthiness of my conclusions
+might be tested by the spade,"[@HorsDisc90, 41] and that he had not been
+able to do much of his own archaeology. Horsford did not build the tower to be
+himself remembered, rather to inspire others to continue his work. Indeed, the
+plaque at the base of the tower does not bear his name.
+
+Eben Norton Horsford would die two years after *The Discovery* was published,
+on January first, 1893.[@AdamsMemBiog08, 103] He believed himself a pioneer; at
+the cutting edge of discovery, the first breakthrough in a movement that would
+long outlive him. After his death, however, there was little interest in
+furthering Horsford's ideas. His biographers mostly gloss over the veracity of
+his theories, focusing more on his considerable achievements in chemistry,
+large and generous donations to various colleges, and support for women's
+education.[@JackHors92, 345] The tower remains. Built to inspire an awe of
+history, it now draws confused second glances in the rear-view mirror. A
+century of wind and rain have washed out its words, and the trees it once
+dominated now cast it in shadow.
+
+[^1]: Springfield Weekly, 1893
+[^2]: Unfortunately the building the body had been stored in burned down, and
+    so did not last long enough to be identified by modern
+    science.[@HorsDisc87, 30]
+
+![*Norumbega Tower as it appeared in 1928, about forty years after its construction. Image in the public domain, accessed from* [wikimedia commons](https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Norumbega_Tower,_Charles_River,_1928,_by_Leon_Abdalian,_from_the_Digital_Commonwealth_-_commonwealth_fj237442q.jpg&oldid=915801762)*.*](tower_old.jpg){width=80%}
+
+![*Norumbega Tower as it appears today, about 136 years after its construction. Image in the public domain, access from* [wikimedia commons](https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Norumbega_Tower_-_Weston,_Massachusetts_-_DSC06645.jpg&oldid=596325156)*.*](tower_new.jpg){width=80%}
+
+\pagebreak
+\singlespace
+# References

bibliography.bib

@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@
     editor = {New England Historic Genealogical Society},
     year = {1908},
     publisher = {New England Historic Genealogical Society},
-    address = {Boston, MA},
+    address = {Boston, Massachusetts},
     volume = {9},
     pages = {103--105},
 }
@@ -24,6 +24,7 @@
     doi = {10.1086/ahr/100.4.1061},
     url = {https://doi.org/10.1086/ahr/100.4.1061},
     eprint = {https://academic.oup.com/ahr/article-pdf/100/4/1061/49007/100-4-1061.pdf},
+    annote = {From a journal, on Oxford University Press.}
 }
 
 % https://www.jstor.org/stable/20020530
@@ -37,7 +38,8 @@
     title = {Eben Norton Horsford},
     urldate = {2025-02-14},
     volume = {28},
-    year = {1892}
+    year = {1892},
+    annote = {From a peer-reviewed academic journal, on JSTOR.},
 }
 
 % https://archive.org/details/these-truths/mode/2up
@@ -46,15 +48,153 @@
     title = {These Truths: A History of the United States},
     year = {2018},
     publisher = {W. W. Norton \& Company, Inc.},
-    address = {New York, N.Y.}
+    address = {New York City, New York},
+    annote = {Review: https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/indimagahist.115.4.08.}
 }
 
 % https://openlibrary.org/books/OL6909322M
 @book{WeiseDis84,
     author = {Weise, Aurthur James},
-    title = {The Discoveries of America to the year 1525},
+    title = {The Discoveries of America to the Year 1525},
     year = {1884},
     publisher = {Richard Bently and Son},
     address = {London},
     annote = {A primary source contemporary to Horsford, which details the accepted narrative for the discovery of America at the time.}
 }
+
+% https://www.jstor.org/stable/1151390
+@article{KirsNor98,
+    ISSN = {03085694, 14797801},
+    URL = {http://www.jstor.org/stable/1151390},
+    author = {Kirsten A. Seaver},
+    journal = {Imago Mundi},
+    pages = {34--58},
+    publisher = {[Imago Mundi, Ltd., Taylor \& Francis, Ltd.]},
+    title = {Norumbega and "Harmonia Mundi" in Sixteenth-Century Cartography},
+    urldate = {2025-02-25},
+    volume = {50},
+    year = {1998},
+    annote = {From a peer reviewed academic journal, on JSTOR.},
+}
+
+% https://archive.org/details/theoryartofbread00hors/
+@book{HorsBread61,
+    author = {Eben Norton Horsford},
+    title = {The Theory and Art of Bread-Making. A New Process Without the use of Fermet},
+    year = {1861},
+    publisher = {Welsh Bigelow \& Co.},
+    address = {Cambridge, Massachusetts},
+    annote = {A primary source, written by Horsford.}
+}
+
+% https://archive.org/details/problemofnorthme00hors/page/n9/mode/2up
+@book{HorsProb89,
+    author = {Eben Norton Horsford},
+    title = {The Problem of the Northmen},
+    year = {1889},
+    publisher = {John Wilson and Son},
+    address = {Cambridge, Massachusetts},
+    annote = {A primary source, written by Horsford.}
+}
+
+% https://digital.sciencehistory.org/works/2227mq61j
+@book{HorsCook77,
+    author = {Eben Norton Horsford},
+    title = {Horsford's Cook Book},
+    year = {1877},
+    publisher = {Rumford Chemical Works},
+    address = {Providence, Rhode Island},
+    annote = {Primary source.}
+}
+
+% https://archive.org/details/discoveryofameri00hors/page/n9/mode/2up?ref=ol&view=theater
+@book{HorsDisc87,
+    author = {Eben Norton Horsford},
+    title = {Discovery of America by Northmen},
+    year = {1888},
+    publisher = {The Riverside Press},
+    address = {Cambridge, Massachusetts},
+    annote = {A primary source, originally delivered orally by Horsford at the dedication of a statue of Lief Ericson in Faneuil Hall, 1887.}
+}
+
+% https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/histmemo.30.2.04
+% https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.2979/histmemo.30.2.04.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3A4008a607be5aa86a3bda0ee0b695dadb&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1
+@article{GuttVal18,
+    ISSN = {0935560X, 15271994},
+    URL = {https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/histmemo.30.2.04},
+    author = {Torgrim Sneve Guttormsen},
+    journal = {History and Memory},
+    number = {2},
+    pages = {79--115},
+    publisher = {Indiana University Press},
+    title = {Valuing Immigrant Memories as Common Heritage: The Leif Erikson Monument in Boston},
+    urldate = {2025-03-24},
+    volume = {30},
+    year = {2018}
+}
+
+% https://archive.org/details/lifevoyagesofver00gree
+@book{GreeneLife37,
+    author = {Greene, George Washington},
+    title = {The Life and Voyages of Verrazzano},
+    year = {1837},
+    publisher = {Folsom, Wells, and Thurston},
+    address = {Cambridge, Massachusetts},
+}
+
+% https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/50801/pg50801-images.html
+@book{WinsNar89,
+    author = {Winsor, Justin},
+    title = {Narrative and Critical History of America: Aboriginal America},
+    volume = {1},
+    year = {1889},
+    publisher = {Houghton, Mifflin and Company},
+    address = {Boston, Massachusetts},
+    annote = {Primary source.}
+}
+
+% https://archive.org/details/discoveryofancie01hors/page/n21/mode/2up
+@book{HorsDisc90,
+    author = {Eben Norton Horsford},
+    title = {The Discovery of the Ancient City of Norumbega},
+    year = {1890},
+    publisher = {Houghton, Mifflin and Company},
+    address = {Boston, Massachusetts},
+    annote = {Primary source.}
+}
+
+@book{LongBall41,
+    author = {Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth},
+    title = {Ballads and Other Poems},
+    year = {1841},
+    publisher = {John Owen},
+    address = {Cambridge, Massachusetts},
+    annote = {Primary source; evidence of interest in New England Vikings previous to Horsford.},
+}
+
+@article{LedgeHorz19,
+    author = {Paul M. Ledger and Linus Girdland-Flink and Véronique Forbes},
+    title = {New Horizons at L'Anse aux Meadows},
+    journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
+    volume = {116},
+    number = {31},
+    pages = {15341-15343},
+    year = {2019},
+    doi = {10.1073/pnas.1907986116},
+    URL = {https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.1907986116},
+    annote = {From peer-reviewed acedemic journal.}
+}
+
+@article{WhiteLong42,
+    ISSN = {00365637},
+    URL = {http://www.jstor.org/stable/40915544},
+    author = {George L. White},
+    journal = {Scandinavian Studies},
+    number = {2},
+    pages = {70--82},
+    publisher = {[Society for the Advancement of Scandinavian Study, University of Illinois Press]},
+    title = {LONGFELLOW'S INTEREST IN SCANDINAVIA DURING THE YEARS 1835-1847},
+    urldate = {2025-04-27},
+    volume = {17},
+    year = {1942}
+}

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-      <if type="chapter entry-dictionary entry-encyclopedia paper-conference" match="any">
-        <choose>
-          <if variable="page">
-            <group prefix=", ">
-              <text variable="volume" suffix=":"/>
-              <text variable="page"/>
-            </group>
-          </if>
-        </choose>
-      </if>
-    </choose>
-  </macro>
-  <macro name="locators-article">
-    <choose>
-      <if type="article-newspaper">
-        <group prefix=", " delimiter=", ">
-          <group delimiter=" ">
-            <text variable="edition"/>
-            <text term="edition"/>
-          </group>
-          <group>
-            <text term="section" form="short" suffix=" "/>
-            <text variable="section"/>
-          </group>
-        </group>
-      </if>
-      <else-if type="article-journal">
-        <choose>
-          <if variable="volume">
-            <choose>
-              <if variable="issue">
-                <text variable="page" prefix=": "/>
-              </if>
-              <else>
-                <!-- CMoS 15.48: If the month or season is included, it is
-                  enclosed in parentheses, and a space follows the colon.
-                  Unfortunately we can't check the month in CSL v1.0.2.
-                -->
-                <text variable="page" prefix=":"/>
-              </else>
-            </choose>
-          </if>
-          <else>
-            <text variable="page" prefix=", "/>
-          </else>
-        </choose>
-      </else-if>
-    </choose>
-  </macro>
-  <macro name="point-locators">
-    <choose>
-      <if variable="locator">
-        <choose>
-          <if locator="page" match="none">
-            <choose>
-              <if type="bill book graphic legal_case legislation motion_picture report song" match="any">
-                <choose>
-                  <if variable="volume">
-                    <group>
-                      <text term="volume" form="short" suffix=" "/>
-                      <number variable="volume" form="numeric"/>
-                      <label variable="locator" form="short" prefix=", " suffix=" "/>
-                    </group>
-                  </if>
-                  <else>
-                    <label variable="locator" form="short" suffix=" "/>
-                  </else>
-                </choose>
-              </if>
-              <else>
-                <label variable="locator" form="short" suffix=" "/>
-              </else>
-            </choose>
-          </if>
-          <else-if type="bill book graphic legal_case legislation motion_picture report song" match="any">
-            <number variable="volume" form="numeric" suffix=":"/>
-          </else-if>
-        </choose>
-        <text variable="locator"/>
-      </if>
-    </choose>
-  </macro>
-  <macro name="container-prefix">
-    <text term="in" text-case="capitalize-first"/>
-  </macro>
-  <macro name="container-title">
-    <choose>
-      <if type="chapter entry-dictionary entry-encyclopedia paper-conference" match="any">
-        <text macro="container-prefix" suffix=" "/>
-      </if>
-    </choose>
-    <choose>
-      <if type="webpage">
-        <text variable="container-title" text-case="title"/>
-      </if>
-      <else-if type="legal_case" match="none">
-        <group delimiter=" ">
-          <text variable="container-title" text-case="title" font-style="italic"/>
-          <choose>
-            <if type="post-weblog">
-              <text value="(blog)"/>
-            </if>
-          </choose>
-        </group>
-      </else-if>
-    </choose>
-  </macro>
-  <macro name="publisher">
-    <group delimiter=": ">
-      <text variable="publisher-place"/>
-      <text variable="publisher"/>
-    </group>
-  </macro>
-  <macro name="date">
-    <choose>
-      <if variable="issued">
-        <group delimiter=" ">
-          <date variable="original-date" form="text" date-parts="year" prefix="(" suffix=")"/>
-          <date variable="issued">
-            <date-part name="year"/>
-          </date>
-        </group>
-        <text variable="year-suffix"/>
-      </if>
-      <else-if variable="status">
-        <text variable="status" text-case="capitalize-first"/>
-        <text variable="year-suffix" prefix="-"/>
-      </else-if>
-      <else>
-        <text term="no date" form="short"/>
-        <text variable="year-suffix" prefix="-"/>
-      </else>
-    </choose>
-  </macro>
-  <macro name="date-in-text">
-    <choose>
-      <if variable="issued">
-        <group delimiter=" ">
-          <date variable="original-date" form="text" date-parts="year" prefix="[" suffix="]"/>
-          <date variable="issued">
-            <date-part name="year"/>
-          </date>
-        </group>
-        <text variable="year-suffix"/>
-      </if>
-      <else-if variable="status">
-        <text variable="status"/>
-        <text variable="year-suffix" prefix="-"/>
-      </else-if>
-      <else>
-        <text term="no date" form="short"/>
-        <text variable="year-suffix" prefix="-"/>
-      </else>
-    </choose>
-  </macro>
-  <macro name="date-sort">
-    <date variable="issued">
-      <date-part name="year"/>
-    </date>
-  </macro>
-  <macro name="day-month">
-    <date variable="issued">
-      <date-part name="month"/>
-      <date-part name="day" prefix=" "/>
-    </date>
-  </macro>
-  <macro name="collection-title">
-    <choose>
-      <if match="none" type="article-journal">
-        <choose>
-          <if match="none" is-numeric="collection-number">
-            <group delimiter=", ">
-              <text variable="collection-title" text-case="title"/>
-              <text variable="collection-number"/>
-            </group>
-          </if>
-          <else>
-            <group delimiter=" ">
-              <text variable="collection-title" text-case="title"/>
-              <text variable="collection-number"/>
-            </group>
-          </else>
-        </choose>
-      </if>
-    </choose>
-  </macro>
-  <macro name="collection-title-journal">
-    <choose>
-      <if type="article-journal">
-        <group delimiter=" ">
-          <text variable="collection-title"/>
-          <text variable="collection-number"/>
-        </group>
-      </if>
-    </choose>
-  </macro>
-  <macro name="event">
-    <group delimiter=" ">
-      <choose>
-        <if variable="genre">
-          <text term="presented at"/>
-        </if>
-        <else>
-          <text term="presented at" text-case="capitalize-first"/>
-        </else>
-      </choose>
-      <text variable="event"/>
-    </group>
-  </macro>
-  <macro name="description">
-    <choose>
-      <if variable="interviewer" type="interview" match="any">
-        <group delimiter=". ">
-          <text macro="interviewer"/>
-          <text variable="medium" text-case="capitalize-first"/>
-        </group>
-      </if>
-      <else-if type="patent">
-        <group delimiter=" " prefix=". ">
-          <text variable="authority"/>
-          <text variable="number"/>
-        </group>
-      </else-if>
-      <else>
-        <text variable="medium" text-case="capitalize-first" prefix=". "/>
-      </else>
-    </choose>
-    <choose>
-      <if variable="title" match="none"/>
-      <else-if type="thesis personal_communication speech" match="any"/>
-      <else>
-        <group delimiter=" " prefix=". ">
-          <text variable="genre" text-case="capitalize-first"/>
-          <choose>
-            <if type="report">
-              <text variable="number"/>
-            </if>
-          </choose>
-        </group>
-      </else>
-    </choose>
-  </macro>
-  <macro name="issue">
-    <choose>
-      <if type="legal_case">
-        <text variable="authority" prefix=". "/>
-      </if>
-      <else-if type="speech">
-        <group prefix=". " delimiter=", ">
-          <group delimiter=" ">
-            <text variable="genre" text-case="capitalize-first"/>
-            <text macro="event"/>
-          </group>
-          <text variable="event-place"/>
-          <text macro="day-month"/>
-        </group>
-      </else-if>
-      <else-if type="article-newspaper article-magazine personal_communication" match="any">
-        <date variable="issued" form="text" prefix=", "/>
-      </else-if>
-      <else-if type="patent">
-        <group delimiter=", " prefix=", ">
-          <group delimiter=" ">
-            <!--Needs Localization-->
-            <text value="filed"/>
-            <date variable="submitted" form="text"/>
-          </group>
-          <group delimiter=" ">
-            <choose>
-              <if variable="issued submitted" match="all">
-                <text term="and"/>
-              </if>
-            </choose>
-            <!--Needs Localization-->
-            <text value="issued"/>
-            <date variable="issued" form="text"/>
-          </group>
-        </group>
-      </else-if>
-      <else-if type="article-journal" match="any"/>
-      <else>
-        <group prefix=". " delimiter=", ">
-          <choose>
-            <if type="thesis">
-              <text variable="genre" text-case="capitalize-first"/>
-            </if>
-          </choose>
-          <text macro="publisher"/>
-        </group>
-      </else>
-    </choose>
-  </macro>
-  <citation et-al-min="4" et-al-use-first="1" disambiguate-add-year-suffix="true" disambiguate-add-names="true" disambiguate-add-givenname="true" givenname-disambiguation-rule="primary-name" collapse="year" after-collapse-delimiter="; ">
-    <layout prefix="(" suffix=")" delimiter="; ">
-      <group delimiter=", ">
-        <choose>
-          <if variable="issued" match="any">
-            <group delimiter=" ">
-              <text macro="contributors-short"/>
-              <text macro="date-in-text"/>
-            </group>
-          </if>
-          <!---comma before forthcoming and n.d.-->
-          <else>
-            <group delimiter=", ">
-              <text macro="contributors-short"/>
-              <text macro="date-in-text"/>
-            </group>
-          </else>
-        </choose>
-        <text macro="point-locators"/>
-      </group>
-    </layout>
-  </citation>
-  <bibliography hanging-indent="true" et-al-min="11" et-al-use-first="7" subsequent-author-substitute="&#8212;&#8212;&#8212;" entry-spacing="0">
-    <sort>
-      <key macro="contributors"/>
-      <key macro="date-sort"/>
-      <key variable="title"/>
-    </sort>
-    <layout suffix=".">
-      <group delimiter=". ">
-        <text macro="contributors"/>
-        <text macro="date"/>
-        <text macro="title"/>
-      </group>
-      <text macro="description"/>
-      <text macro="secondary-contributors" prefix=". "/>
-      <text macro="container-title" prefix=". "/>
-      <text macro="container-contributors"/>
-      <text macro="edition"/>
-      <text macro="locators-chapter"/>
-      <text macro="collection-title-journal" prefix=", " suffix=", "/>
-      <text macro="locators"/>
-      <text macro="collection-title" prefix=". "/>
-      <text macro="issue"/>
-      <text macro="locators-article"/>
-      <text macro="access" prefix=". "/>
-    </layout>
-  </bibliography>
-</style>