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@@ -9,69 +9,71 @@ author: Jacob Signorovitch
\maketitle
In Weston, Massachusetts, across the Charles River from Brandeis University, an
unusual structure rises between the trees; a forty foot stone tower, complete
unusual structure rises among the trees; a forty foot stone tower, complete
with spiral staircase and ramparts, weathered and stained with time, looking
distinctly out of place within earshot of I-95. The story of how it came to be
involves Vikings, a baking soda magnate, the discovery of America, and at the
center of it all is the myth of Norumbega. As one explores the area, the name
comes up again and again; a map will tell you the structure's name is Norumbega
Tower, and running alongside is Norumbega Road. Further south, one finds a
Norumbega Park, and another road called Norumbega Court. This paper will
explore how one man in the late 19th century, Eben Norton Horsford, brought
together two seemingly disconnected ideas into a theory for the original
discovery of America, what motivated him to do so, and what he left behind.
there involves Vikings, a baking soda magnate, the discovery of America, and,
at the center of it all, the city of Norumbega. As one explores the area, the
name comes up again and again; a map will tell you the structure's name is
Norumbega Tower, and running alongside is Norumbega Road. Further south, one
finds a Norumbega Park, and another road called Norumbega Court. This paper
will explore how one man in the late 19th century, Eben Norton Horsford,
brought together two seemingly disconnected ideas into a theory for the
original discovery of America, what motivated him to do so, and what he left
behind.
The myth of Norumbega originated during the Age of Exploration. It was
variously a town, city, or country, somewhere along the coast of New England,
inhabited by amiable and civilized natives. First given the name *Nurumberg* by
Giacomo Gastaldi in a 1548 edition of Ptolemy's Geography,[@KirsNor98, 34] the
myth can be traced back to a conflation of two separate accounts. The first is
that of Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer under King Francis I of
France.[@GreeneLife37, 4-7] He was one of the first Europeans to explore the
area around Narragansett Bay in 1524[@KirsNor98, 36, 39], far distant from
where Norumbega would eventual be described. However, due to geographical
ambiguity at the time, his account would later become "at the heard of the
Norumbega legend."[@KirsNor98, 39] He recounted his experiences in a letter to
the king, where he described a pleasant harbor inhabited by friendly and civil
natives.[@KirsNor98, 39] They practiced "more systematic cultivation [of crops]
than the other tribes," and were "very like the manner of the
ancients."[@KirsNor98, 39] In the letter, Giovanni names the place *refugio*,
"on account of its beauty."[@KirsNor98, 39] Civilized inhabitants became one of
the core aspects of the myth, present throughout its evolution even as its
exact location and size varied. The second account is that of Jean Alfonce de
Saintonge, pilot on Jacques Cartier's exploration of the Penobscot Bay area
[KirsNor98, 41]. Sailing up the Penobscot River, which he called the
*Norenbègue*, he described "a city called *Norombegue* with clever inhabitants
[...] The people use many words which sound like Latin and worship the sun, and
they are fair people and tall."[KirsNor98, 41] These two accounts, Giovanni s
*refugio* and Saintonge's *Norombegue*, eventually merged into a single myth,
canonized by Gastaldi, of an advanced Native American city whose manners were
closer to those of Europe than their neighbors.[@KirsNor98, 41]
The myth of Norumbega originated in the 16th century, during the Age of
Exploration. It was variously a town, city, or country, somewhere along the
coast of New England, inhabited by amiable and civilized natives. First given
the name *Nurumberg* by Giacomo Gastaldi in a 1548 edition of Ptolemy's
Geography,[@KirsNor98, 34] the myth can be traced back to a conflation of two
separate accounts. The first is that of Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine
explorer under King Francis I of France.[@GreeneLife37, 4-7] He was one of the
first Europeans to explore the area around Narragansett Bay in 1524[@KirsNor98,
36, 39], far distant from where Norumbega would eventual be described. However,
due to geographical ambiguity at the time, his account would later become "at
the heart of the Norumbega legend."[@KirsNor98, 39] He recounted his
experiences in a letter to the king, where he described a pleasant harbor
inhabited by friendly and civil natives.[@KirsNor98, 39] They practiced "more
systematic cultivation [of crops] than the other tribes," and were "very like
the manner of the ancients."[@KirsNor98, 39] In the letter, Giovanni names the
place *refugio*, "on account of its beauty."[@KirsNor98, 39] Civilized
inhabitants became one of the core aspects of the myth, present throughout its
evolution even as its exact location and size varied. The second account is
that of Jean Alfonce de Saintonge, pilot on Jacques Cartier's exploration of
the Penobscot Bay area [@KirsNor98, 41]. Sailing up the Penobscot River, which
he called the *Norenbègue*, he described "a city called *Norombegue* with
clever inhabitants [...] The people use many words which sound like Latin and
worship the sun, and they are fair people and tall."[@KirsNor98, 41] These two
accounts, Giovanni s *refugio* and Saintonge's *Norombegue*, eventually merged
into a single myth, canonized by Gastaldi, of an advanced Native American city
whose manners were closer to those of Europe than their neighbors.[@KirsNor98,
41]
Eben Norton Horsford was a chemist working in Cambridge, best known for his
invention of modern baking powder.[@JackHors92, 343] In addition to his work,
he showed some interest in history and archaeology throughout his life. He
would collect fossils around his father's farm in Moscow (now Leister), New
York where he grew up,[@JackHors92, 340] and expressed interest in learning the
York where he grew up,[@JackHors92, 340] and became interested in learning the
language of the Seneca Indians[@JackHors92, 340], to which his father worked as
a missionary.[@JackHors92, 103] Later, he would often visit his wife's family
estate on Shelter Island, New York.[@AdamsMemBiog08, 104] There, he became
interested in the island's history and "erected a monument to the Quakers, who
found shelter there from Puritan persecution."[@AdamsMemBiog08, 104] He would
later repeat this pattern of investigation and monument building in
Massachusetts.
While in Cambridge, Horsford became very interested in the Vikings. This was
part of a widespread movement; rising anti-irish and anti-catholic sentiment
had put Columbus in an unfavorable light, and many casting around for some
non-catholic discoverer of America settled on Leif Erickson as suitable, albeit
pagan, predecessor [[NEED SOURCES FOR ALL THIS]]. When New England area
newspapers at the time mentioned Erickson, they often made a comparison of his
achievements to those of Columbus, who never fared well. In 1887,[@HorsDisc87,
10] Horsford wrote the dedication for a large bronze statue of
Erickson,[@GuttVal18, 86] commending him for his early discovery of America. He
doesn't stop just there, though; he additionally asserts Leif sailed south
after making the continent, all the way to Cape Cod. He explains his reasoning:
Massachusetts. Horsford is most remembered for his contribution to baking
science. He is credited for the invention of modern baking powder in 1861,
which did not involve a fermentation step.[@HorsBread61] He then founded the
Rumford Chemical Works, named after the position he held at Harvard, and made a
fortune[@JackHors92, 343] selling his invention and cookbooks which used
it.[@HorsCook77] While in Cambridge, Horsford became very interested in the
possibility of Vikings in New England. This not an unheard of idea at the
time,[@FlemPicHist95, 1079] but Horsford would bring much more publicity and
become its foremost supporter. In 1887,[@HorsDisc87, 10] Horsford wrote the
dedication for a large bronze statue of Erickson,[@GuttVal18, 86] commending
him for his early discovery of America. He doesn't stop just there, though; he
additionally asserts Leif sailed south after making the continent, all the way
to Cape Cod. He explains his reasoning:
> ...if you will be kind enough to hold up to your mind's eye, now for a
> moment, any familiar map of North America. Look at the east coast. From
@@ -82,16 +84,11 @@ after making the continent, all the way to Cape Cod. He explains his reasoning:
He disregards Newfoundland as an option, saying "[it] is bold, rocky,
mountainous, of meagre vegetation, and with few beaches."[@HorsDisc87, 10]
Ironically, the best evidence archaeologists have now for the location of
Vinland is L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland. Horsford
-- How horsford disproves Nova Scotia
-- How Horsford uses etymology
How his views were received in the
Vinland is L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland. How Horsford was recieved in the
moment, if those around him were surprised by this theory, is unclear. But his
theories would see much criticism once published. One author, Justin Winsor,
found issue with Horsford's theory that Vikings had left a noticeable imprint
on Native American language:
theories would certainly see criticism from historians once published. One
author, Justin Winsor, found issue with Horsford's theory that Vikings had left
a noticeable imprint on Native American language:
> Nothing could be slenderer than the alleged correspondences of languages, and
> we can see in Horsford's *Discovery of America by Northmen* to what a
@@ -111,31 +108,95 @@ inviting his audience to see the evidence for themselves. He claims there are
"inequalities of the surface," which are "the remains of two long log houses,
and huts, or cots."[@HorsProb89, 14] He states they are arranged "'some nearer,
some farther from the water,' as the sagas say,"[@HorsProb89, 14] again using
the sagas as a primary source of proof for his theory.
the sagas as a primary source of proof for his theory. Outside of just
Horsford, there existed a wider movement around the promotion of Leif Erickson
at the time. Newspapers at the time rarely mention Leif without mention his
preceding Columbus,[^1] which may have been part of the widespread anti-Italian
sentiment. Several other proponents of Vikings in New England also believed
"the 'Aryan race,' in particular its 'Teutonic' [i.e., German] branch, was
superior to all others."[@FlemPicHist95, 1078] Horsford, however, seems to have
only been interested in Leif and never brings up racial superiority or a
disdain for Columbus. In fact, he states that Leif's prior discovery of America
"would dim, by the measure of the faintest Indian-summer haze only, the
transcendent glory of the life-work of Columbus."[@HorsDisc90, 16] So, while
some of the enthusiasm around Horsford's work may have been to diminish
Columbus as an expression of pro-Nordic anti-Italian sentiment, it seems the
man himself was more scientifically motivated.
Include part by that historian who wrote about how wrong he was[@HorsProb89, 1]
It was at Shelter island when "a chance reference let fall by one of his
guests" would introduce Horsford to the legend of Norumbega.[@JackHors92, 344]
The term seems to have been widely known in New England at the time; both an
article from the Worcester Daily Spy in 1875 and one from the Vermont Phoenix
in 1894 mention Norumbega in passing, the reader assumed to be familiar.
Horsford, having grown up in New York, was only introduced to it after his
retirement and became deeply interested He read the accounts of Alafonce and
Verrazzano, and describes them in one of his books.[@HorsDisc90, 14] In this
same book, *Discovery of the Ancient City of Norumbega*, Horsford mentions the
existence of so many maps that prominently display Norumbega that "one could
not help thinking that they must have some foundation in truth; the alternative
[would have] involved too many conspirators, of different
nationalities."[@HorsDisc90, 13] How Horsford made the connection from
Norumbega to Leif Erickson is a little less clear, though it was most likely
etymological. We have seen already Horsford's early interest in Native American
language from his early years with the Seneca in New York, and it seems he
thought the name "Norumbega" peculiar. He describes how "many hundreds of years
ago the country we call Norway was called Norbegia or Norbega,"[@HorsDisc90,
19] and that in "the Algonquin family of languages, which prevailed throughout
New England, could not [...] utter the sound of *b* without prefixing to it the
sound of *m*."[@HorsDisc90, 18] Thus, he reasons, *Norumbega* is but a Native
American corruption of what the Vikings would have called Norway. Horsford uses
physical evidence to support his claim as well. He mentions several instances
where the first settlers of Massachusetts found natural dams or weirs, which
could be used for fishing (the fish would be stopped and collect before the
weir on their way upstream to spawn.)[@HorsDisc90, 33-34] He also describes
walls and other structures on the floor of Boston Harbor and Back Bay, evidence
of "the ancient seaport of Norumbega."[@HorsDisc90, 37] To Horsford, all this
evidence proved the existence of a great Viking fort of Norumbega, and
necessitated the construction of a monument. We have seen this pattern before;
once to the Quakers who found refuge on Shelter Island, and again in Boston to
Leif Erickson for discovering America. He justifies the monument in four
reasons:
Summary of Horsford's defense, letter to judge Daly source[@HorsProb89]
> 1. It will commemorate the Discovery of Vinland and Norumbega in the
> forty-third degree, and the identification of Norumbega with Norway, the
> come country to which this region was once subject by right of discovery
> and colonization.
> 2. It will invite criticism, and so sift out any errors of interpretation
> into which, sharing the usual fortune of the pioneer, I may have been led.
> 3. It will encourage archæological investigation in a fascinating and almost
> untrodden field, and be certain to contribute in the results of research
> and exploration, both in the study and the field, to the historical
> treasure of the Commonwealth.
> 4. It will help, by reason of its mere presence, and by virtue of the
> veneration with which the Tower will in time come to be regarded, to bring
> acquiescence in the fruit of investigation, and so allay the blind
> scepticism, amounting practically to inverted ambition, that would deprive
> Massachusetts of the glory of holding the Landfall of Leif Erickson, and
> at the same time the seat of the earliest colony of Europeans in
> America.[@HorsDisc90, 40]
Write about Horsford's "archaeology," what he says he found, his methods
These say much about the man Horsford was. As already seen from his comments on
Columbus, he was not motivated by dislike of the Italians; rather, he sought to
bring "the glory" of Leif's discovery to Massachusetts, his home for the
majority of his working life. Second, he is remarkably humble in his theories;
this is particularly evident in his second point, and to an extent the third.
He accepts that "the trustworthiness of my conclusions might be tested by the
spade,"[@HorsDisc90, 41] and that he had not been able to do much of his own
archaeology. Horsford did not build the tower to be himself remembered, rather
to inspire others to continue his work. Indeed, the plaque at the base of the
tower does not bear his name.
Write about the dedication of the Norumbega Tower
Eben Norton Horsford would die two years after *The Discovery* was published,
on January first, 1893.[@AdamsMemBiog08, 103] He believed himself a pioneer; at
the cutting edge of discovery, the first breakthrough in a movement that would
long outlive him. After his death, however, there seemed to be little interest
around his ideas. His biographers mostly gloss over the veracity of his
theories, focusing more on his achievements in chemistry, and his large and
generous donations to various colleges in the area[@JackHors92, 345] The tower
remains. A century of wind and rain have made its words near impossible to
read, and trees now obscure it from the river.
Write about how Horsford connected his interest in Vikings and Leif Ericsson to
the myth of Norumbega -- his interest in Native American language and how that
let him make the connection.
Horsford read about how Alafonce described the natives of Norumbega speaking
something closer to Latin; he interpreted that as being influenced by Norse.
The city of Norumbega was the last vestige of viking occupation
It is unclear when or how Horsford first heard about the myth of
Norumbega, but it is possible it was widely known at the time. A newspaper
(((TIME AND PAPER HERE))) mentions the myth in passing, well before Horsford
made it regionally famous.
[^1]: Springfield Weekly, 1893
\pagebreak
# References
\singlespacing

22
bibliography.bib
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@@ -97,6 +97,16 @@
annote = {A primary source, written by Horsford.}
}
% https://digital.sciencehistory.org/works/2227mq61j
@book{HorsCook77,
author = {Eben Norton Horsford},
title = {Horsford's Cook Book},
year = {1877},
publisher = {Rumford Chemical Works},
address = {Providence, Rhode Island},
annote = {Primary source.}
}
% https://archive.org/details/discoveryofameri00hors/page/n9/mode/2up?ref=ol&view=theater
@book{HorsDisc87,
author = {Eben Norton Horsford},
@@ -139,6 +149,16 @@
volume = {1},
year = {1889},
publisher = {Houghton, Mifflin and Company},
address = {Boston, Massachusetts}
address = {Boston, Massachusetts},
annote = {Primary source.}
}
% https://archive.org/details/discoveryofancie01hors/page/n21/mode/2up
@book{HorsDisc90,
author = {Eben Norton Horsford},
title = {The Discovery of the Ancient City of Norumbega},
year = {1890},
publisher = {Houghton, Mifflin and Company},
address = {Boston, Massachusetts},
annote = {Primary source.}
}